Prediction markets enable decentralized price discovery for future events by allowing participants to trade shares representing different outcomes. Unlike traditional betting platforms that rely on centralized operators, Arkade’s prediction markets use mathematical market makers and cryptographic oracles to create trustless, capital-efficient prediction mechanisms.

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Overview

Arkade’s prediction market implementation leverages:
  • Logarithmic Market Scoring Rule (LMSR) for automated market making with bounded losses
  • Recursive covenants to maintain market invariants across state transitions
  • Control token architecture for state carrying transactions
The LMSR mechanism provides constant liquidity regardless of trading volume while ensuring the market maker’s maximum loss is bounded by a predetermined liquidity parameter.

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Contract Architecture

The prediction market operates through a control token that carries market state across transactions. State transitions are enforced through Taproot key tweaking, ensuring the contract logic is preserved while allowing efficient state updates.

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Example Implementation


contract LMSRPredictionMarket(
  // Market parameters (immutable)
  bytes32[] outcomeHashes,
  int liquidityParameter,
  int resolutionTime,
  pubkey oracle,
  
  // State parameters (change with each transaction)
  int[] outcomeShares,     // Share count for each outcome
  int totalExpSum,         // Current exponential sum
  bool isResolved,         // Resolution status
  int winningOutcome       // Winner (if resolved)
) {
  
  // Buy outcome shares
  function buyShares(
    int outcome,
    int quantity,
    int maxCost,
    signature userSig,
    pubkey user
  ) {
    // Verify outcome index is valid
    require(outcome >= 0 && outcome < outcomeHashes.length, "Invalid outcome");
    require(quantity > 0, "Quantity must be positive");
    
    // Inspect current UTXO state
    require(tx.inputs.length == 2, "Must have exactly 2 inputs");
    require(tx.outputs.length >= 2, "Must have at least 2 outputs");
    
    // Get current share count for this outcome from constructor parameters
    int currentShare = outcomeShares[outcome];
    
    // Calculate new share amount and exponential sum
    int newShare = currentShare + quantity;
    int oldExp = expApprox(currentShare, liquidityParameter);
    int newExp = expApprox(newShare, liquidityParameter);
    int newExpSum = totalExpSum - oldExp + newExp;
    
    // Calculate trade cost using LMSR
    int cost = liquidityParameter * (lnApprox(newExpSum) - lnApprox(totalExpSum));
    require(cost <= maxCost, "Cost exceeds maximum");
    require(cost > 0, "Invalid trade cost");
    
    // Verify payment input
    require(tx.inputs[1].value >= cost, "Insufficient payment");
    
    // Create new contract instance with updated state
    int[] newOutcomeShares = outcomeShares;
    newOutcomeShares[outcome] = newShare;
    
    bytes newCovenantScript = new LMSRPredictionMarket(
      outcomeHashes,      // Same market parameters
      liquidityParameter,
      resolutionTime,
      oracle,
      newOutcomeShares,   // Updated shares
      newExpSum,          // Updated exponential sum
      false,              // Still not resolved
      -1                  // No winner yet
    );
    
    // Calculate taproot commitment for new covenant
    bytes32 scriptHash = sha256(concat(<0xC4>, newCovenantScript));
    bytes32 tapTweak = sha256(concat("TapTweak/arkade", UNSPENDABLE_KEY, scriptHash));
    
    // Verify output 0 continues the covenant with new state
    require(tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey.length == 34, "Invalid taproot output");
    require(tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey[0] == 0x51, "Must be witness v1");
    require(tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey[1] == 0x20, "Must be 32-byte program");
    
    // Clean, composable covenant verification
    bytes32 outputPubkey = tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey[2:34];
    require(tweakVerify(outputPubkey, UNSPENDABLE_KEY, tapTweak), "Invalid covenant continuation");
    
    // Verify pool value increases by cost
    require(tx.outputs[0].value == tx.inputs[0].value + cost, "Pool value mismatch");
    
    // Verify user receives outcome tokens
    bytes32 outcomeAsset = deriveOutcomeAsset(outcome);
    require(tx.outputs[1].asset == outcomeAsset, "Wrong outcome asset");
    require(tx.outputs[1].value == quantity, "Token quantity mismatch");
    
    // Create user output script
    require(tx.outputs[1].scriptPubKey.length == 34, "Invalid user output");
    require(tx.outputs[1].scriptPubKey[0] == 0x51, "Must be witness v1");
    require(tx.outputs[1].scriptPubKey[1] == 0x20, "Must be 32-byte program");
    
    // Verify user signature
    require(checkSig(userSig, user), "Invalid user signature");
  }
  
  // Sell outcome shares
  function sellShares(
    int outcome,
    int quantity,
    int minPayout,
    signature userSig,
    pubkey user
  ) {
    // Verify outcome index and quantity
    require(outcome >= 0 && outcome < outcomeHashes.length, "Invalid outcome");
    require(quantity > 0, "Quantity must be positive");
    
    // Inspect current state
    require(tx.inputs.length == 2, "Must have exactly 2 inputs");
    require(tx.outputs.length >= 2, "Must have at least 2 outputs");
    
    // Get current market state from constructor parameters
    int currentShare = outcomeShares[outcome];
    
    // Verify sufficient shares exist
    require(currentShare >= quantity, "Insufficient shares in market");
    
    // Calculate new state
    int newShare = currentShare - quantity;
    int oldExp = expApprox(currentShare, liquidityParameter);
    int newExp = expApprox(newShare, liquidityParameter);
    int newExpSum = totalExpSum - oldExp + newExp;
    
    // Calculate payout (negative cost for selling)
    int payout = liquidityParameter * (lnApprox(totalExpSum) - lnApprox(newExpSum));
    require(payout >= minPayout, "Payout below minimum");
    require(payout > 0, "Invalid payout amount");
    
    // Verify user is burning correct outcome tokens
    bytes32 outcomeAsset = deriveOutcomeAsset(outcome);
    require(tx.inputs[1].asset == outcomeAsset, "Wrong outcome asset");
    require(tx.inputs[1].value >= quantity, "Insufficient tokens to burn");
    
    // Create new contract instance with updated state
    int[] newOutcomeShares = outcomeShares;
    newOutcomeShares[outcome] = newShare;
    
    bytes newCovenantScript = new LMSRPredictionMarket(
      outcomeHashes,
      liquidityParameter,
      resolutionTime,
      oracle,
      newOutcomeShares,   // Updated shares
      newExpSum,          // Updated exponential sum
      false,              // Still not resolved
      -1                  // No winner yet
    );
    
    bytes32 scriptHash = sha256(concat(<0xC4>, newCovenantScript));
    bytes32 tapTweak = sha256(concat("TapTweak/arkade", UNSPENDABLE_KEY, scriptHash));
    
    // Verify covenant continuation
    require(tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey.length == 34, "Invalid taproot output");
    require(tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey[0] == 0x51, "Must be witness v1");
    require(tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey[1] == 0x20, "Must be 32-byte program");
    
    bytes32 outputPubkey = tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey[2:34];
    require(tweakVerify(outputPubkey, UNSPENDABLE_KEY, tapTweak), "Invalid covenant continuation");
    
    // Verify pool value decreases by payout
    require(tx.outputs[0].value == tx.inputs[0].value - payout, "Pool value mismatch");
    
    // Verify user receives payout
    require(tx.outputs[1].value == payout, "Payout amount mismatch");
    require(tx.outputs[1].scriptPubKey.length == 34, "Invalid payout output");
    require(tx.outputs[1].scriptPubKey[0] == 0x51, "Must be witness v1");
    
    // Verify user signature
    require(checkSig(userSig, user), "Invalid user signature");
  }
  
  // Resolve market with oracle signature
  function resolve(
    int resolvedWinningOutcome,
    bytes resolutionData,
    signature oracleSig
  ) {
    // Verify resolution time has passed
    require(tx.time >= resolutionTime, "Resolution time not reached");
    
    // Verify winning outcome is valid
    require(resolvedWinningOutcome >= 0 && resolvedWinningOutcome < outcomeHashes.length, "Invalid winning outcome");
    
    // Verify oracle signature on resolution data
    bytes message = sha256(concat(outcomeHashes[resolvedWinningOutcome], resolutionData, int2bytes(tx.time)));
    require(checkSigFromStack(oracleSig, oracle, message), "Invalid oracle signature");
    
    // Get current market state
    int totalWinningShares = outcomeShares[resolvedWinningOutcome];
    require(totalWinningShares > 0, "No winning shares exist");
    
    // Create resolved covenant state
    bytes resolvedCovenantScript = new LMSRPredictionMarket(
      outcomeHashes,
      liquidityParameter,
      resolutionTime,
      oracle,
      outcomeShares,          // Preserve final shares
      totalExpSum,            // Preserve final exp sum
      true,                   // Mark as resolved
      resolvedWinningOutcome  // Set winner
    );
    
    bytes32 resolvedScriptHash = sha256(concat(<0xC4>, resolvedCovenantScript));
    bytes32 resolvedTapTweak = sha256(concat("TapTweak/arkade", UNSPENDABLE_KEY, resolvedScriptHash));
    
    // Verify resolved covenant output
    require(tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey.length == 34, "Invalid taproot output");
    require(tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey[0] == 0x51, "Must be witness v1");
    require(tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey[1] == 0x20, "Must be 32-byte program");
    
    bytes32 resolvedPubkey = tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey[2:34];
    require(tweakVerify(resolvedPubkey, UNSPENDABLE_KEY, resolvedTapTweak), "Invalid resolution state");
    
    // Preserve pool value for redemptions
    require(tx.outputs[0].value == tx.inputs[0].value, "Pool value must be preserved");
  }
  
  // Redeem winning shares after resolution
  function redeem(
    int redeemShares,
    signature userSig,
    pubkey user
  ) {
    // Verify this is a resolved market
    require(isResolved, "Market not resolved");
    
    int totalWinningShares = outcomeShares[winningOutcome];
    int poolValue = tx.inputs[0].value;
    
    // Calculate proportional payout using clean arithmetic
    int payout = (redeemShares * poolValue) / totalWinningShares;
    
    // Verify user is burning winning outcome tokens
    bytes32 winningAsset = deriveOutcomeAsset(winningOutcome);
    require(tx.inputs[1].asset == winningAsset, "Wrong outcome asset");
    require(tx.inputs[1].value >= redeemShares, "Insufficient winning shares");
    
    // Verify payout to user
    require(tx.outputs[0].value == payout, "Payout amount mismatch");
    require(tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey.length == 34, "Invalid payout output");
    require(tx.outputs[0].scriptPubKey[0] == 0x51, "Must be witness v1");
    
    // Update remaining pool if there are still shares to redeem
    int remainingShares = totalWinningShares - redeemShares;
    if (remainingShares > 0) {
      int remainingPool = poolValue - payout;
      
      // Create updated resolved covenant with reduced shares
      int[] updatedShares = outcomeShares;
      updatedShares[winningOutcome] = remainingShares;
      
      bytes updatedResolvedScript = new LMSRPredictionMarket(
        outcomeHashes,
        liquidityParameter,
        resolutionTime,
        oracle,
        updatedShares,     // Updated shares with redemption
        totalExpSum,       // Preserve exp sum
        true,              // Still resolved
        winningOutcome     // Same winner
      );
      
      bytes32 updatedScriptHash = sha256(concat(<0xC4>, updatedResolvedScript));
      bytes32 updatedTapTweak = sha256(concat("TapTweak/arkade", UNSPENDABLE_KEY, updatedScriptHash));
      
      require(tx.outputs[1].scriptPubKey.length == 34, "Invalid continuation output");
      require(tx.outputs[1].scriptPubKey[0] == 0x51, "Must be witness v1");
      require(tx.outputs[1].scriptPubKey[1] == 0x20, "Must be 32-byte program");
      
      bytes32 updatedPubkey = tx.outputs[1].scriptPubKey[2:34];
      require(tweakVerify(updatedPubkey, UNSPENDABLE_KEY, updatedTapTweak), "Invalid continuation");
      require(tx.outputs[1].value == remainingPool, "Remaining pool value mismatch");
    }
    
    // Verify user signature
    require(checkSig(userSig, user), "Invalid user signature");
  }
  
  // Mathematical helper functions using clean arithmetic operations
  function expApprox(int x, int b) internal returns (int) {
    if (x == 0) return 10000; // Fixed point 1.0
    
    // Taylor series: e^(x/b) ≈ 1 + x/b + (x/b)²/2 + (x/b)³/6
    // Compiler automatically uses OP_MUL64, OP_DIV64 etc for overflow safety
    int term1 = (x * 10000) / b;
    int xOverB = x / b;
    int term2 = (xOverB * xOverB) / 2;
    int term3 = (xOverB * xOverB * xOverB) / 6;
    
    return 10000 + term1 + term2 + term3;
  }
  
  function lnApprox(int x) internal returns (int) {
    require(x > 0, "Cannot take log of non-positive number");
    
    if (x == 10000) return 0; // ln(1) = 0
    
    // Series expansion: ln(x) ≈ (x-1) - (x-1)²/2 + (x-1)³/3
    // Compiler handles 64-bit arithmetic automatically
    int diff = x - 10000;
    int term1 = diff;
    int term2 = (diff * diff) / 20000;
    int term3 = (diff * diff * diff) / 300000000;
    
    return term1 + term3 - term2;
  }
  
  function deriveOutcomeAsset(int outcome) internal returns (bytes32) {
    // Derive unique asset ID for each outcome
    return sha256(concat("OUTCOME_TOKEN_", int2bytes(outcome)));
  }
}

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Advanced Market Mechanisms

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Dynamic Liquidity Adjustment

Markets can programmatically adjust their liquidity parameters based on trading activity and market conditions: 
function adjustLiquidity(int volumeMetric, int timeDecay) internal returns (int) {
  // Increase liquidity during high volume periods
  int baseAdjustment = liquidityParameter;
  
  if (volumeMetric > highVolumeThreshold) {
    baseAdjustment = (baseAdjustment * 13000) / 10000; // 30% increase
  }
  
  // Apply time decay to encourage resolution
  int decayFactor = (timeDecay * 9900) / 10000; // 1% decay per period
  int adjustedLiquidity = (baseAdjustment * decayFactor) / 10000;
  
  // Ensure bounds
  require(adjustedLiquidity >= minLiquidity, "Liquidity too low");
  require(adjustedLiquidity <= maxLiquidity, "Liquidity too high");
  
  return adjustedLiquidity;
}

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Security Considerations

Prediction markets require careful attention to several attack vectors: Oracle Manipulation - Single oracle designs trade decentralization for simplicity but require strong economic incentives and reputation mechanisms to ensure honest reporting. Liquidity Extraction - The bounded loss property of LMSR prevents infinite losses, but sophisticated traders might exploit pricing inefficiencies during low liquidity periods. The control token architecture ensures state consistency while Arkade’s introspection capabilities enable comprehensive validation of each state transition.